Discuss in Detail Ways in Which Variations in the English Language Reflect the Society They Are Situated in Essay Example for Free

Discuss in Detail Ways in Which Variations in the English Language Reflect the Society They Are Situated in Essay Discuss in detail ways in which variations in the English language reflect the society they are situated in. According to Walt Wolfram, â€Å"Language sows its own seeds of change. Social context gives it the fertile ground to grow and spread.† The global spread of English has inevitably led to the formation of new varieties such as Singlish and Hinglish, which are different in their own ways. The differences among these variations, in terms of lexical choice, structure and even pronunciation, are due to the different context and needs of the societies. These include the economical incentive of English in the society, social groups and their cultural make up. The economic incentive of learning English in the society plays a big role in the type of variation that distinguishes the new Englishes from other varieties. With the affluent and powerful recognizing the importance of English to connect, be a part of the global platform and even acquire well paying jobs, the aspiring middle class, who makes up the majority in any societies, would find it very lucrative to learn English, so as to be associated with them. However, in most societies where English is considered a foreign language, learning it in language school is very expensive and usually is an option for the wealthy. As a result, they would pick up bits and pieces of lexical items from the English language, and use it in their speech, maintaining the structure of their native language. An example would be Hinglish, where â€Å"my head is eating circles, is a direct translation of mera sir chakkar kha raha hai., effectively keeping the structure of Hindi. In India, majority of good Standard English speakers are from the upper class due to the exorbitant fees of the language schools. As such, the variation of English in this case reflects the economical incentives and the income gap in the society, where there is a negative association of the variety due to speakers not being able to afford the education of Standard English. In Text B(i), lexical chain pertaining to negativity is adopted to be referred to code mixed languages. They i nclude, â€Å"gutter- speak†, â€Å"bad† and â€Å"consequence† However, as the use of the variation used by the lower and middle class increase due to the population distribution, it might lead to the acceptance of the dialect in the whole society, then coming up with a more organized and uniform variety that most members of society would understand. This uniformity of the variety reflects the social acceptance of the variation. In Text B(i), semantic field of uniqueness is adopted to

Factors Causing Abusive Behaviour

Factors Causing Abusive Behaviour Discuss the pathways that lead to a child becoming an abuser Introduction Abuse can take many forms, including physical, sexual, psychological or financial[1]. It can also be verbal and emotional[2]. There are frequently difficulties associated with defining abuse[3], which exists within social, cultural and legal parameters; for example using physical chastisement with children in some cultures is considered to be the norm[4]. In the UK, while the use of implements to hit children has been made illegal[5], the debate about smacking continues; it is still permissible to use ‘reasonable chastisement’[6], although there has been criticism of this from such agencies as the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) who assert that any form of physical punishment should be outlawed. Physical abuse is more comprehensively defined as: †¦hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning, scalding, drowning, suffocating or otherwise causing physical harm†¦(p. 533)[7] The definition of sexual abuse varies according to the nature of the victim (for example in relation to child sexual abuse); however a broad definition is that it involves the misuse of power, which might be combined with the use of force, to gain sexual gratification from a vulnerable person[8] Psychological and emotional abuse have some similarities, however psychological abuse is distinguishable from emotional abuse in that it results in some form of cognitive or mental impairment[9] whereas emotional abuse is, arguably, more difficult to quantify as there is a degree of subjectivity involved; however it has been described as the use of one or more of the following behaviours: humiliation, harassment, verbal abuse, demonstrating jealous and possessive behaviour, using threats, abandonment, destruction or removal of items that are important to the recipient, using controlling behaviour (for example within a relationship) and undermining someone with a view to lowering their self- esteem[10] Financial abuse is defined as: The intentional or opportunistic appropriation of the income, capital or property of a vulnerable person through theft, fraud, deception, undue influence or exploitation†¦ (p. 17).[11] Verbal abuse is frequently a component of other types of abuse; for example psychological and emotional abuse is likely to involve verbal abuse, which essentially, is the use of language which is disrespectful and hurtful to the recipient[12]. A complex form of abuse arises from Munchausen syndrome by Proxy[13]. This involves a parent or care- giver (most frequently the mother) giving an often plausible impression to health practitioners that a child is ill, by falsifying symptoms, providing false specimens, administering substances which affect the child’s health, or by inflicting wounds or interfering with existing injuries. Quite often the mother has some health care experience so is equipped with the knowledge to inform her actions, and is also able to feign concern while at the same time giving the impression of being pleasant and cooperative. Inevitably the child is likely to suffer unnecessary distress, pain and discomfort and as such the effect of this syndrome is considered to be a form of child abuse, involving as it does physical, psychological and emotional harm. Health professionals may unwittingly be complicit in the abuse by conducting investigations and invasive procedures which can cause further dis tress[14]. The mother is motivated by her own psychological needs for attention and a sense of worth. The reasons why somebody should develop this syndrome are not clear, and various theories of causation have been put forward, such as personality disorder, depressive illness, emotional disturbance and substance abuse[15]. Some sources report that the mother herself may have been abused as a child[16]. If this is the case then this could be one explanation for why a child becomes an abuser. There are various manifestations of abuse within the context of this question. Some children demonstrate abusive behaviour while still in their childhood[17]; a notorious and extreme example of this is the murder of two- year old James Bulger by two ten year old boys in 1993[18]. Other children go on to display abusive behaviour during their adolescence[19],[20],[21] while in other people, abusive behaviour does not emerge until adulthood despite it being possible to trace influential factors back to their childhood[22] The abused who becomes the abuser It is a widely held assumption that people who become abusers, were abused themselves and indeed there is evidence to support this contention[23],[24] . Children who grow up within an abusive environment are three times more likely to become abusers, however it also important to acknowledge that not all children who have been abused go on to become abusers[25]. It would appear that it is more likely for abused children to become abusers if they grow up within an environment where multifactorial influences are present such as a family history of violence, sexual abuse by a female, maternal neglect and lack of supervision[26],[27] . It is important to gain an understanding of why children who have been abused might themselves become abusers, as these factors can be addressed as part of a preventative strategy (breaking the cycle of abuse). Firstly there is evidence that there may be intergenerational transmission of parenting style, whether good or bad; the child simply goes on to prac tice what they have absorbed as a child, some of which might be on an unconscious level[28] . It is also possible that the person is left with feelings of rage, anger and resentment from having been abused and the disempowering effect that this has had on them. They might go on to project these feelings onto a more vulnerable person than they such as a child; using them to vent their feelings manifested as a form of abuse. The person who was abused as a child might feel angry if they are unable to punish or hurt the perpetrator of their abuse and instead might turn on a substitute who becomes the object of their frustrations[29],[30]. They might even use the victim of their abuse as a means of offloading the residual emotions they have as a result of their own experiences of abuse. Ward and Siegert’s pathways model[31] reflects the terminology within the title and offers some explanations for the reasons that people go on to commit sexual abuse, specifically. There are five pathways within this model: intimacy and social skills deficits; deviant sexual scripts; emotional dysregulation; anti- social cognitions and multiple dysfunctional mechanisms. These are relevant to the question because the origin of sexually abusive behaviour is linked to early life experiences within at least three of these pathways; it is the manifestation of the behaviours that varies. Intimacy and social skills deficits are associated with childhood experiences of abuse and neglect and insecure attachment relationships with adults. .Elsewhere attachment deficit has been cited as a cause of violent behaviour in adulthood towards a partner, which is associated with fear of abandonment[32]. The deviant sexual scripts pathway is explained by the experience of childhood sexual abuse; the individual’s ‘sexual script’ reflecting their past experience. Multiple dysfunctional mechanisms are said to develop from childhood experiences of sexual victimisation or early exposure to sexual behaviour and/ or material. The value of this model has been identified as offering a framework for appropriate treatment for sex offenders, as the underlying reason for the behaviour can be identified and addressed[33]. Psychosocial factors Psychosocial factors such as parental loss due to death, separation or divorce have been linked with children becoming abusers[34]; however the likelihood of this occurring is increased if there are multiple factors involved, as indicated on p. 4, para. 1. It is also possible that the child who has not been directly abused themselves, but has witnessed violence at close quarters, for example their mother being abused by their father, learns that violence is an appropriate behaviour in relation to the resolution of conflict[35]. However it could be argued that exposing children to such behaviour in itself constitutes a form of abuse, as it is distressing and can have long- term psychological effects. In relation to exposure to violence, there is a body of evidence to link the relationship between playing violent video games, and watching violent films, with an increase in aggressive behaviour[36],[37] . A link was made between the killing of James Bulger (referred to above on p. 3, pa ra. 2) and the influence of video violence, although there were also several other proposed causes for the incident[38]. There are also links made between socioeconomic factors and the incidence of abuse[39],[40], however once again there are likely to be other, interrelated contributory factors, such as unemployment and alcohol or drug abuse. Conclusion An extensive review of the literature yields a compelling argument that many abusers were themselves abused as children. However it is also clear that not all children who have been abused become abusers themselves. There are gaps in the literature in relation to examining the reasons why some individuals and not others, are able to turn away from the effects of abuse. It would appear that the reasons why a child becomes an abuser are complex and multifactorial; it has been suggested at several points in this essay that the effects of one single causative factor can be strengthened by the presence of other negative factors. In summary, the factors that might cause a child to become an abuser include: being the victim of abuse, be it physical, sexual, emotional or a combination of one or more types; being exposed to violent behaviour (for example between parents); exposure to materials that depict violence, such as magazines, films and video games; emotional deprivation leading to att achment deficit; loss of a parent; exposure to sexually explicit materials and/ or behaviour; neglect; the abuse of alcohol and/ or drugs within the home; poverty and a lack of (non- abusive) discipline and guidance. References Abuse definitions and symptoms. Verbal Abuse. http://www.nemasys.com/ghostwolf/Resources/abusedef.shtml 2004 Accessed: 1st February 2007. Adshead G and Brooke D (eds.) Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy: current issues in assessment, treatment and research. Imperial College Press 2001. Bagley C. Child Abusers: Research and Treatment. Universal Publishers. 2003. p.2 bbc.co.uk. 1993: Two boys charged with toddlers murder. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/20/newsid_2552000/2552185.stm. Accessed: 1st February 2007. bbc.co.uk. New smacking law comes into force. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4175905.stm 2005. Accessed: 1st February 2007. Boyles S. Do Sexually Abused Kids Become Abusers? WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/60/67158.htm 2003 Accessed: 31 January 2007. Brogden M and Nijhar P Crime, Abuse and the Elderly. Willan Publishing. 2000. p. 44 Brown S. Treating Sex Offenders: an introduction to sex offender treatment programmes. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 93. Cannon M. Invited commentaries on: Cycle of child sexual abuse: links between being a victim and becoming a perpetrator. The British Journal of Psychiatry 179 2001 pp. 495-496 Cardwell M and Flanagan C Psychology A2. Nelson Thornes. 2003. p. 53 Catherall D. The Handbook of Stress, Trauma, and the Family. Routledge. 2004. p. 385. Cohle S and Byard R. Sudden Death in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Cambridge University Press. 2004. p.138 Duncan K. Healing From The Trauma Of Childhood Sexual Abuse: the journey for women. Praeger/Greenwood 2004. p. 205. Elliot J and Place M. Children in Difficulty: A Guide to Understanding and Helping. Routledge 2004. pp. 110-111 Erooga M. Children and Young People Who Sexually Abuse Others: challenges and responses. Routledge 1999. Flowers R Domestic Crimes, Family Violence and Child Abuse: A Study of Contemporary American SocietyMcFarland Company. 2000. p. 14. Goodwin J. Munchausen’s Syndrome as a dissociative disorder. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1331/1/Diss_1_1_6_OCR.pdf Accessed: 2nd February 2007 Greer S. Territorial Politics and Health Policy: UK Health Policy in Comparative Perspective. Manchester University Press. 2005. p.59 Hagell A Jeyarajah-Dent R Children Who Commit Acts of Serious Interpersonal Violence: Messages for Practice. Jessica Kinglsey publishers. 2006. p. 75. Hill M and Lockyer A. Youth Justice and Child Protection. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2006. p.124. Hines D and Malley- Morrison K. Family Violence in a Cultural Perspective. Sage Publications. 2004. pp. 4, 49. Horton I and Feltham C. The Sage Handbook of Counselling And Psychotherapy. Sage Publicaiotns 2006. p. 464. Itzin C. Home truths about child sexual abuse: a reader. Routledge 2000. p.222. Kandel Englander, E. Understanding violence. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. p.11 Knauer S. Recovering from Sexual Abuse, Addictions, and Compulsive Behaviors: Numb Survivors. Haworth Press. 2002. pp. 146-7 Krahe B. The Social Psychology of Aggression. Psychology Press (UK). 2001. p. 161. Marshall W, O’Reilly G, Carr A and Beckett R. Handbook of Clinical Intervention with Young People Who Sexually Abuse. Psychology Press. 2004. pp. 47-50 Macleod-Brudene I. Advanced Early Years Care and Education: For Levels 4 and 5. Harcourt Heinemann. 2004. p. 397 McAuley C, Pecora P and Rose W. Enhancing the Well Being of Children And Families Through Effective Interventions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2006. p. 144. Mukherji P. Understanding Childrens Challenging Behaviour. Nelson Thornes 2001. p. 58. National Audit Office. protecting and promoting the financial affairs of people who lose mental capacity. The Stationery Office. 2005. p. 17. Plat- Jones J. Domestic violence: the role of health professionals. Nursing Standard. 21(14-15-16) 2006pp. 44-48 Reference.com. James Bulger. http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/James_Bulger. Accessed: 1st February 2007 Sigelman C and Rider E. Life- span Human Development. Thomson Wadsworth. 2005. p. 449 Skuse D and Bouvier P. Risk of sexually abused children becoming adult abusers lower than once thought. The Lancet February 2003. Stosny S. Treating Attachment Abuse: A Compassionate ApproachSpringer Publishing 1995. pp. 42-44. Tilley N. Handbook Of Crime Prevention And Community Safety. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 533 Wilson R. Fabricated or induced illness in children. British Medical Journal. 323. 2001. pp. 296-297 Total word count (does not include footnotes) 2253 1 Footnotes [1]Brogden M and Nijhar P Crime, Abuse and the Elderly. Willan Publishing. 2000. p. 44 [2] Flowers R Domestic Crimes, Family Violence and Child Abuse: A Study of Contemporary American SocietyMcFarland Company. 2000. p. 14. [3],10Hines D and Malley- Morrison K. Family Violence in a Cultural Perspective. Sage Publications. 2004. pp. 4, 49 [4] Mukherji P. Understanding Childrens Challenging Behaviour. Nelson Thornes 2001. p. 58. [5] Macleod-Brudene I. Advanced Early Years Care and Education: For Levels 4 and 5. Harcourt Heinemann. 2004. p. 397. [6] bbc.co.uk. New smacking law comes into force. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4175905.stm 2005. Accessed: 1st February 2007. [7] Tilley N. Handbook Of Crime Prevention And Community Safety. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 533. [8] Horton I and Feltham C. The Sage Handbook of Counselling And Psychotherapy. Sage Publicaiotns 2006. p. 464. [9] Krahe B. The Social Psychology of Aggression. Psychology Press (UK). 2001. p. 161. [10] [11] National Audit Office. protecting and promoting the financial affairs of people who lose mental capacity. The Stationery Office. 2005. p. 17. [12] Abuse definitions and symptoms. Verbal Abuse. http://www.nemasys.com/ghostwolf/Resources/abusedef.shtml 2004 Accessed: 1st February 2007. [13] Adshead G and Brooke D (eds.) Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy: current issues in assessment , treatment and research. Imperial College Press 2001. [14] Wilson R. Fabricated or induced illness in children. British Medical Journal. 323. 2001. pp. 296-297. [15] Cohle S and Byard R. Sudden Death in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Cambridge University Press. 2004. p.138 [16] Goodwin J. Munchausen’s Syndrome as a dissociative disorder. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1331/1/Diss_1_1_6_OCR.pdf Accessed: 2nd February 2007 [17] Erooga M. Children and Young People Who Sexually Abuse Others: challenges and responses. Routledge 1999. [18] bbc.co.uk. 1993: Two boys charged with toddlers murder. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/20/newsid_2552000/2552185.stm. Accessed 1st February 2007. [19], 23Hagell A Jeyarajah-Dent R Children Who Commit Acts of Serious Interpersonal Violence: Messages for Practice. Jessica Kinglsey publishers. 2006. p. 75. [20] Elliot J and Place M. Children in Difficulty: A Guide to Understanding and Helping. Routledge 2004. pp. 110-111 [21] Itzin C. Home truths about child sexual abuse: a reader. Routledge 2000. p.222. [22] Bagley C. Child Abusers: Research and Treatment. Universal Publishers. 2003. p.2 [23] [24] McAuley C, Pecora P and Rose W. Enhancing the Well Being of Children And Families Through Effective Interventions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2006. p. 144. [25],26 Boyles S. Do Sexually Abused Kids Become Abusers? WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/60/67158.htm 2003. Accessed: 31 January 2007. [26] [27] Skuse D and Bouvier P. Risk of sexually abused children becoming adult abusers lower than once thought. The Lancet February 2003. [28] Sigelman C and Rider E. Life- span Human Development. Thomson Wadsworth. 2005. p. 449 [29] Duncan K. Healing From The Trauma Of Childhood Sexual Abuse: the journey for women. Praeger/Greenwood 2004. p. 205. [30] Knauer S. Recovering from Sexual Abuse, Addictions, and Compulsive Behaviours: Numb Survivors. Haworth Press. 2002. pp. 146-7 [31] Marshall W, O’Reilly G, Carr A and Beckett R. Handbook of Clinical Intervention with Young People Who Sexually Abuse. Psychology Press. 2004. pp. 47-50 [32] Stosny S. Treating Attachment Abuse: A Compassionate Approach. Springer Publishing 1995. pp. 42-44. [33] Brown S. Treating Sex Offenders: an introduction to sex offender treatment programmes. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 93. [34] Cannon M. Invited commentaries on: Cycle of child sexual abuse: links between being a victim and becoming a perpetrator. The British Journal of Psychiatry 179 2001 pp. 495-496 [35] Plat- Jones J. Domestic violence: the role of health professionals. Nursing Standard. 21(14-15-16) 2006pp. 44-48 [36] Kandel Englander, E. Understanding violence. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. p.11 [37] Cardwell M and Flanagan C Psychology A2. Nelson Thornes. 2003. p. 53. [38] Reference.com. James Bulger. http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/James_Bulger. Accessed: 1st February 2007. [39] Hill M and Lockyer A. Youth Justice and Child Protection. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2006. p.124. [40] Greer S. Territorial Politics and Health Policy: UK Health Policy in Comparative Perspective. Manchester University Press. 2005. p.59.

Consequences of child abuse and neglect

Consequences of child abuse and neglect Introduction Child abuse and neglect are an unfortunate reality for many children in our community. The past thirty years have witnessed a growth in our awareness of and attention to the problems faced by children exposed to violence in their homes. The consequences of maltreatment can be devastating. For over 30 years, clinicians have described the effects of child abuse and neglect on the physical, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral development of children. Physical consequences range from minor injuries to severe brain damage and even death. Psychological consequences range from chronic low self-esteem to severe dissociative states. The cognitive effects of abuse range from attentional problems and learning disorders to severe organic brain syndromes. Behaviorally, the consequences of abuse range from poor peer relations all the way to extraordinarily violent behaviors. Thus, the consequences of abuse and neglect affect the victims themselves and the society in which they live. REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS A 1989 conference convened by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development recommended that maltreatment be defined as behavior towards another person, which (a) is outside the norms of conduct, and (b) entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm. Behaviors included will consist of actions and omissions, ones that are intentional and ones that are unintentional (Christoffel et al., 1992). The term child maltreatment refers to a broad range of behaviors that involve risk for the child. Four general categories of child maltreatment are now generally recognized: (1) physical abuse, (2) sexual abuse, (3) neglect, and (4) emotional maltreatment. Each category, in turn, covers a range of behaviors. Physical abuse includes scalding, beatings with an object, severe physical punishment, and a rare form of the abuse called Munchausen by proxy, wherein an adult will feign or induce illness in a child in order to attract medical attention and support. Sexual abuse includes incest, sexual assault by a relative or stranger, fondling of genital areas, exposure to indecent acts, sexual rituals, or involvement in child pornography. Child neglect is the presence of certain deficiencies in caretaker obligations (usually the parent, although neglect can be found in residential centers or foster care homes) that harm the childs psychological and/or physical health. Child neglect covers a range of behaviors including educational, supervisory, medical, physical, and emotional neglect, and abandonment, often complicated by cultural and contextual factors. Several authors (Mrazek and Mrazek, 1985; Zuravin, 1991) have noted the relative lack of attention to definitional issues of child neglect, particularly given its greater reported prevalence (NCCAN, 1981, 1988b; Wolock and Horowitz, 1984). Emotional maltreatment, a recently recognized form of child victimization, includes such acts as verbal abuse and belittlement, symbolic acts designed to terror ize a child, and lack of nurturance or emotional availability by caregivers. Effects of child abuse and neglect Physical Health Consequence The immediate physical effects of abuse or neglect can be relatively minor (bruises or cuts) or severe (broken bones, hemorrhage, or even death). In some cases the physical effects are temporary; however, the pain and suffering they cause a child should not be discounted. Meanwhile, the long-term impact of child abuse and neglect on physical health is just beginning to be explored. According to the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), more than one-quarter of children who had been in foster care for longer than 12 months had some lasting or recurring health problem (Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation [ACF/ OPRE], 2004a). Below are some outcomes researchers have identified: Shaken baby syndrome: Shaking a baby is a common form of child abuse. The injuries caused by shaking a baby may not be immediately noticeable and may include bleeding in the eye or brain, damage to the spinal cord and neck, and rib or bone fractures (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2007). Impaired brain development: Child abuse and neglect have been shown, in some cases, to cause important regions of the brain to fail to form or grow properly, resulting in impaired development (De Bellis Thomas, 2003). These alterations in brain maturation have long-term consequences for cognitive, language, and academic abilities (Watts-English, Fortson, Gibler, Hooper, De Bellis, 2006). NSCAW found more than three-quarters of foster children between 1 and 2 years of age to be at medium to high risk for problems with brain development, as opposed to less than half of children in a control sample (ACF/ OPRE, 2004a). Poor physical health: Several studies have shown a relationship between various forms of household dysfunction (including childhood abuse) and poor health (Flaherty et al., 2006; Felitti, 2002). Adults who experienced abuse or neglect during childhood are more likely to suffer from physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, high blood pressure, and ulcers (Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2007). Psychological Consequence The immediate emotional effects of abuse and neglectà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬isolation, fear, and an inability to trustà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬can translate into lifelong consequences, including low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. Researchers have identified links between child abuse and neglect and the following: Difficulties during infancy: Depression and withdrawal symptoms were common among children as young as 3 who experienced emotional, physical, or environmental neglect (Dubowitz, Papas, Black, Starr, 2002). Poor mental and emotional health: In one long-term study, as many as 80 percent of young adults who had been abused met the diagnostic criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder at age 21. These young adults exhibited many problems, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts (Silverman, Reinherz, Giaconia, 1996). Other psychological and emotional conditions associated with abuse and neglect include panic disorder, dissociative disorders, attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, depression, anger, posttraumatic stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorder (Teicher, 2000; De Bellis Thomas, 2003; Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2007). Cognitive difficulties: NSCAW found that children placed in out-of-home care due to abuse or neglect tended to score lower than the general population on measures of cognitive capacity, language development, and academic achievement (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). A 1999 LONGSCAN study also found a relationship between substantiated child maltreatment and poor academic performance and classroom functioning for school-age children (Zolotor, Kotch, Dufort, Winsor, Catellier, 1999). Social difficulties: Children who experience rejection or neglect are more likely to develop antisocial traits as they grow up. Parental neglect is also associated with borderline personality disorders and violent behavior (Schore, 2003). Behavioural Consequences Not all victims of child abuse and neglect will experience behavioral consequences. However, behavioral problems appear to be more likely among this group, even at a young age. An NSCAW survey of children ages 3 to 5 in foster care found these children displayed clinical or borderline levels of behavioral problems at a rate more than twice that of the general population (ACF, 2004b). Later in life, child abuse and neglect appear to make the following more likely: Difficulties during adolescence: Studies have found abused and neglected children to be at least 25 percent more likely to experience problems such as delinquency, teen pregnancy, low academic achievement, drug use, and mental health problems (Kelley, Thornberry, Smith, 1997). Other studies suggest that abused or neglected children are more likely to engage in sexual risk-taking as they reach adolescence, thereby increasing their chances of contracting a sexually transmitted disease (Johnson, Rew, Sternglanz, 2006). Juvenile delinquency and adult criminality: According to a National Institute of Justice study, abused and neglected children were 11 times more likely to be arrested for criminal behavior as a juvenile, 2.7 times more likely to be arrested for violent and criminal behavior as an adult, and 3.1 times more likely to be arrested for one of many forms of violent crime (juvenile or adult) (English, Widom, Brandford, 2004). Alcohol and other drug abuse: Research consistently reflects an increased likelihood that abused and neglected children will smoke cigarettes, abuse alcohol, or take illicit drugs during their lifetime (Dube et al., 2001). According to a report from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, as many as two-thirds of people in drug treatment programs reported being abused as children (Swan, 1998). Abusive behavior: Abusive parents often have experienced abuse during their own childhoods. It is estimated approximately one-third of abused and neglected children will eventually victimize their own children. Societal Consequences While child abuse and neglect almost always occur within the family, the impact does not end there. Society as a whole pays a price for child abuse and neglect, in terms of both direct and indirect costs. Direct costs: Direct costs include those associated with maintaining a child welfare system to investigate and respond to allegations of child abuse and neglect, as well as expenditures by the judicial, law enforcement, health, and mental health systems. Indirect costs: Indirect costs represent the long-term economic consequences of child abuse and neglect. These include costs associated with juvenile and adult criminal activity, mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence. They can also include loss of productivity due to unemployment and underemployment, the cost of special education services, and increased use of the health care system. Possible Treatment Strategies Descriptions of treatment for child sexual abuse, physical abuse, and neglect have been reported separately within the literature, with much more attention paid to treatment of child sexual abuse. In fact, there are relatively few studies or reports of individual treatment of the physically abused or neglected child. In practice, however, treatment programs often address individual needs of children. The emphasis here is cognitive behavioral treatments, as these have shown the greatest effects in controlled studies. General Issues for Treatment First and foremost, it is important that the child be safe from potential harm from the offender as well as from non-believing or unsupportive family members. In addition to ethical issues of treating a child within an unsafe environment, treatment of abuse related problems is not likely to be effective if the child is living in such conditions. The targets for treatment are determined to a large degree by the childs presenting symptoms and are defined following the initial assessment. There are, however, certain overriding goals that should guide the treatment process. Treatment should be directive and focused on the abuse or trauma itself. Treatment approaches: Help and encourage the child to talk and think about the abuse/neglect without embarrassment or significant anxiety. Help the child to modulate and express feelings about the abuse; Reduce the intensity and frequency of behavioral and emotional symptoms; Clarify and change distorted, inaccurate, or unhealthy thinking patterns that might negatively affect the childs view of self and others; Help the child develop healthier attachments; Strengthen the childs coping skills Enhance social skills, and Educate the child regarding self-protective strategies. An additional goal, accomplished specifically through group therapy is to reduce the childs sense of isolation or stigma through exposure to other victims of abuse. Group treatment for victims of child physical abuse can have positive effects but may also be associated with increased behavior problems. Therefore the therapist should be cautious and monitor group participants behavior closely (Kolko Swenson, 2002). Treatment strategies Strategies for treating the abused child are varied and are used as appropriate to the childs presenting problems. Recommended treatment approaches include (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995): 1) cognitive-behavioral strategies, 2) graduated exposure to aspects of the abusive experience, 3) relaxation training , 4) education regarding abuse process and effects of abuse, 5) skills training, 6) supportive strategies teaching self-protective strategies, 7) behavioral strategies/parent training. Strategies for treating abuse victims which have received some scientific support, have been those derived from a cognitive behavioral perspective and which focus on the abuse itself. Cognitive behavioral strategies typically address the childs thinking patterns, affective response, and behavioral reactions to the abuse. In particular, the childs attributions of blame and responsibility for the abuse should be addressed. That is, the child should be helped to recognize that it is adults rather than children who are responsible for healthy parent-child interactions (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995). Gradual exposure or discussion of abuse experiences helps to reduce the childs anxiety and embarrassment and provides opportunities to modify inaccurate or self-defeating thinking processes. Relaxation training further addresses the childs fear or anxiety reaction to abuse-related cues and can facilitate more effective affect regulation. Educational approaches facilitate clarification of misperc eptions developed in response to the abuse. Skills training are used to teach the child coping strategies to manage negative emotions and to improve social/interpersonal functioning. Supportive techniques also are required, as the child may be coping with non-supportive family members, upcoming court proceedings, and/or negative reactions from peers. Education in the use of self-protective strategies is important for minimizing the likelihood that the child will be abused/neglected again (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995). It is important to establish a safety plan within the home, delineate danger cues, and identify support persons in the childs environment to decrease the secrecy within previously abusive/neglectful families. This, in turn, is expected to minimize the risk of repeated abuse. Age-related issues The treatment approach should be appropriate to the age of the child. For example, a four year old child should not be expected to come into a therapist or counselors office, sit on a couch, and recount the details of her abuse. The therapist can utilize a variety of play techniques to encourage the young child to communicate about his or her abuse. Many cognitive behavioral strategies which are used with adolescents and adults can be modified or simplified for use with young children (Kolko Swenson, 2002). For example, there are numerous scripts for relaxation training which are humorous and which engage the child in the therapeutic process. Puppets and drawings are useful as well for helping children to tell of their experiences, learn strategies for coping with negative emotions, and behaving in a more organized and directed manner. In contrast, older children and adolescents are more able to directly communicate their thoughts and feelings about their abuse experiences. It is recommended, however, that the therapist be flexible in method of approach. Drawings, therapeutic stories, and therapeutic games can be very helpful for engaging children of all ages. Treatment duration There are no clear guidelines regarding the length of treatment for the abused or neglected child, although most studies of treatment effectiveness have examined short-term interventions. Clinical experience suggests that while some children can resolve their negative reactions to the abuse in a relatively brief period (i.e., 12 16 sessions), many will require more extended treatment. Typically, treatment length will be determined by the nature of the childs social, behavioral, or emotional difficulties. That is, the child who is experiencing a wide array of problems of a serious nature is likely to require more intensive treatment over a long period of time. In addition, the quality of support that the child is receiving from the non-offending caregiver or other family members will affect treatment length. That is, child problems are typically more significant if there is no support coming from the non-offending caregiver, and, therefore, treatment of the child whose non-offending parent is disbelieving or non-supportive is likely to be more extensive than that of a child who has the support of a non-offending parent. Additional treatment approaches Family involvement in treatment Children should not be treated in isolation of intervention with their family and/or current living situation. Thus, many in the field recognize the importance of incorporating family members, particularly parents or primary caregivers, into treatment addressing abuse and neglect (Kolko Swenson, 2002). The goal of family work is to reduce the risk of recurring abuse, increase safety, and promote healthy growth and development of all family members. Family approaches address the needs of all family members while also targeting the interactions between them. However, it is difficult to specify the precise structure of therapeutic work addressing family issues. The specific approach with the family will vary; depending upon the childs living context and the level of acknowledgement of abuse by offender(s) and non-offending caregiver(s). For example, a child who has been placed in foster care due to parent-child abuse and lack of a supportive non-offending caregiver will be addressing d ifferent issues than the child who is receiving support from a non-offending caregiver and/or whose abusive parent is acknowledging abuse and is committed to treatment. Family work is not indicated if the child is in out-of-home placement and there are no plans for reunification. Treatment involving the entire family and that has as a goal family reunification is generally of a much longer duration than individual treatment of the child. Initial stages involve the child, offender, and non-offending caregiver in individual treatment, allowing members to first address individual issues related to the development and outcomes of the abuse. In addition, marital work is recommended to address relational issues between the childs caregivers prior to any reunification efforts. If early work with caregivers is successful, family therapy may ensue. The clarification session can serve as the bridge between each family members individual treatment and treatment addressing the entire familys needs. Therapeutic interventions with caregivers typically begin with individual sessions addressing the abuse itself, as well as the specific needs of family members. These stages of treatment encourage assumption of responsibility by the offender and non-offending caregiver(s). An alleged perpetrator who is denying having abused the child or a non-offending parent who does not believe that abuse has occurred cannot fully benefit from abuse-specific treatment. Therefore, initial treatment efforts focus on reducing denial. If such efforts fail, family treatment is contraindicated. If the offender is acknowledging having abused and/or neglected the child, then he or she can engage in abuse-specific treatment that addresses faulty thinking patterns, behavioral actions, emotional responses, and physiologic reactions. Sexual abuse offenders will be targeting their sexual arousal to children, thought patterns which allow them to justify perpetrating sexual abuse, and examining the behavioral repertoire that lead up to abuse. Physical abuse offenders will learn strategies for managing anger, parenting skills, and non-physical means of discipline. Caregivers who are neglectful will receive assistance in securing basic goods and resources, will learn parenting strategies and be taught skills which facilitate independent management of the children and familys needs. In the treatment of all forms of abuse it is important to address attributions of blame. Invariably child abuse/neglect offenders minimize their own responsibility for the abuse/neglect and project blame on other family members, most often the victim. The abuse clarification process (Lipovsky et al., 1998), which addresses such attributions, should be included in treatment if at all possible. The abuse clarification involves an acknowledging offender who has proceeded through treatment to a sufficient degree to be able to clarify the nature of the abuse, assume responsibility for the abuse, demonstrate empathy for the childs responses to the abuse, and begin to participate in the development of a family safety plan. The abuse clarification process is addressed in the offenders individual or group treatment and is ongoing, often for many months before an abuse clarification session is possible. The abuse clarification session provides the opportunity for the offender to read a letter written to the child victim that focuses on the offenders assumption of responsibility, empathy for the child, and commitment to developing the family safety plan. This session is likely to occur some months after the abuse are disclosed, allowing the offender sufficient opportunity to engage in and progress in his/her own treatment. Ideally, at least one supportive adult should be included in the treatment process. Several programs around the country have targeted non-caregivers parents in their approach to treating child sexual abuse and have found success with such an approach.16, 32, 50 Treatment with non-offending caregivers also must also be built upon a foundation of acknowledgement that abuse has occurred. In most cases, where non-offending caregivers believe and support their child, family work addresses the caregivers individual needs. Early treatment strategies must address denial if it is present. Treatment of the non-offending caregiver(s) addresses his/her emotional responses to the abuse and individual mental health needs. In addition, treatment includes focus on the caregivers responses to the childs abuse, education regarding the childs symptoms and provides assistance for developing strategies for reducing these symptoms. It is recommended that the non-offending parent be involved in an abuse protection clarification (Wilson Ralston, 1995). This process is similar to the abuse clarification conducted with the offender. The protection clarification involves clarification of the abuse, commitment to protection of the child, and participation in the development of a family safety plan. The protection clarification may be initiated relatively early in treatment, especially if the non-offending parent believes and supports the child from the time of disclosure. Long-term family resolution of parent-child abuse is a life-long process and involves changing many aspects of family functioning. Some type of resolution must occur in all cases, regardless of whether the child or offender has been removed from the home. Resolution may take the form of helping a child adjust to permanent foster care and cope with a non-supportive family or may involve reunification of the family following the successful completion of individual/group treatment, the clarification process, and family therapy which addresses a safety plan, alteration of family members rigid patterns of thinking and behaving (Saunders Meinig, 2000). Home-Based Services and Family Preservation Services Home-based services and family preservation services address the overall needs of families, include both children and parents, and focus directly on contextual factors, such as poverty, single parenthood, and marital discord, that increase stress, weaken families, and elicit aggressive behavior (Kolko, in press). These programs target functional relationships among diverse individual, family, and systemic problems by combining traditional social work with various therapeutic counseling approaches. The use of home-based services has been advocated in response to the multiple problems found among abusive and neglectful families, difficulties in providing services in a traditional format, and interests in reducing the number of children placed in foster care. The breadth of potential family dysfunction has encouraged hands-on approaches that address risk factors at multiple levels of the family system, such as financial problems, disruption, social isolation, and behavioral deviance (Frankel, 1988). Self-Help Services for Abusive Adults Self-help support and treatment programs are based on the premise that individuals can benefit from learning about the victimization experiences of others. These programs have attracted popular support in a wide range of health services, including the treatment of alcoholism, weight loss, and rape counseling programs, and they have also been applied in the treatment of both physically and sexually abusive adults.. A self-help component has also been integrated into treatment programs for intra-familial sexual abuse (Giaretto, 1982). Parental Enhancement Most parental enhancement programs focus on training abusive parents in child management (e.g., effective discipline), childrearing (e.g., infant stimulation), and self-control skills (e.g., anger control). Programs for neglectful parents typically focus on areas such as nutrition, homemaking, and child care. Parental enhancement programs may help some families who experience child management problems when a sexually abusive father is removed from the home. In these cases, child management skills help develop positive child- parent interaction in sexually abusive families. The efficacy of parent training approaches for physically abusive parents has been supported by various single-case studies, one study using repeated measures, and group design studies (Azar and Twentyman, 1984; Crimmins et al., 1984; Gilbert, 1976; Jeffrey, 1976; Reid et al., 1981; Szykula and Fleischman, 1985; Wolfe et al., 1981a,b, 1982). Studies of multiple approaches and diverse populations have provided consistent evidence that parents can acquire behavioral skills and use them in interactions with their children, at least in clinical settings (Golub et al., 1987). Some evidence suggests that training has reduced parental distress or symptomatology and, in some instances, improved child functioning (Wolfe et al., 1988) and reduced the likelihood of child placement (Szykula and Fleischman, 1985). Efforts to expand the scope of parental enhancement programs have fostered attention to parents cognitive-attributional and affective repertoires (see Azar and Siegel, 1990). Therapeuti c directions highlight the need to incorporate diverse skills and to evaluate the effectiveness of individual approaches (see Azar and Wolfe,1989). Psychopharmacologic treatment for child victims Medications may be used with child victims of abuse and neglect who are experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A number of medications may be of use, though the state of our knowledge about which are most appropriate for use in children is limited. Some have recommended that the use of medication may be reserved for those children who do not show improvement with cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD. Children experiencing other types of behavioral or emotional difficulties, including depression, anxiety, or attentional problems also can benefit from pharmacologic treatment. In all cases, the choice of medications is determined by psychiatrist through a careful assessment. Family Income and Supplemental Benefits The relationship of poverty to child maltreatment, specifically child neglect, is thought to be significant. Several government programs designed to alleviate or mitigate the effects of poverty on children are often part of a comprehensive set of services for low-income, maltreating families. Such programs include Social Security supplemental income programs, Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), Women with Infants and Children food supplement program (WIC), Head Start, rent subsidy programs, and school lunch programs, among others. Gil (1970) has stated that almost 60 percent of families reported for incidents of abuse and neglect received aid from public assistance agencies during or prior to the study year. However, while national and local child welfare programs designed to improve the well-being of all poor families may provide food, shelter, and other necessary resources, for children in households characterized by neglect or abuse, the relationship between income support, material assistance, and the subsequent reduction of maltreatment has not been systematically addressed. CONCLUSIONS Medical, psychological, social, and legal interventions in child maltreatment cases are based on assumptions that such interventions can reduce the negative physical, behavioral, and psychological consequences of child abuse and neglect, foster attitudes and behaviors that improve the quality of parent-child interactions and limit or eradicate recurrences of maltreatment. Interventions have been developed in response to public, professional, legal, and budgetary pressures that often have competing and sometimes contradictory policies and objectives. Some intervention services focus on protecting the child or protecting the community; others focus on providing individual treatment for the child, the offender, or both; others emphasize developing family coping strategies and improving skills in parent-child interactions. Assumptions about the severity of selected risk factors, the adequacy of caretaking behaviors, the impact of abuse, and the steps necessary to prevent abuse or neglect from recurring may vary given the goals and context of the intervention. Little is known about the character and effects of existing interventions in treating different forms of child maltreatment. No comprehensive inventory of treatment interventions currently exists, and we lack basic descriptive and evaluative information regarding key factors that influence the delivery and outcomes of treatment for victims and offenders at different developmental stages and in different environmental contexts. A coherent base of research information on the effectiveness of treatment is not available at this time to guide the decisions of case workers, probation officers, health professionals, family counselors, and judges. Investigations of child maltreatment reports often influence the development and availability of other professional services, including medical examinations, counseling, evaluation of risk factors, and substantiation of complaints. References Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation. (2004a). Who are the children in foster care? NSCAW Research Brief No. 1. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect website: www.ndacan. cornell.edu/NDACAN/Datasets/Related_Docs/NSCAW_Research_Brief_1.pdf A

BMG Entertainment Essay -- Business Case Studies Essays Papers

BMG Entertainment The Internet, by making free and non-free online distribution of music, has profoundly affected how business is conducted in the record industry in terms of distribution channels, copyright and the economic structure of the major players in the global market. Initially, the Internet was viewed as an opportunity by some of the major players as a new channel of promotion. However, after the existence of Napster and few others, the majority considered it as threat because of the increase in the free file sharing. Consequently, for the Internet to be an opportunity for the major players, they had to adopt new business model in terms of distribution for online customers while keeping their conventional distribution channels. Early response to this threat was searching for technological solution in order to prevent piracy, going to court to sue for copyright infringement, the five major players and others offered their own authorized online distribution joint venture, all in attempt to kee p their power in the market. By fall 2000, there were 80 million users for Napster, and according to survey that was conducted on Napster users, there was an increase of 9% in music fans spending, among more experienced users there was an increase of 20% in their music spending, in addition to an increase of 19% among those using high speed connection. Napster and other free file sharing had caused the record sales to suffer. However, the file sharing services altered the conventional way of lessening to music for consumers. In 2001, 50% of U.S. households owned PCs; consumers spent $1.6 billion on CD burner, blank CDs and digital-audio players. 54% of PCs sales came with CD burners. More than 26% of online music users were ... ...threats that the major companies are facing. The five major companies have to use all of their albums in the new giant venture, and in this way competing by others would be very hard. Consumers would use this channel because it has more than 85% of the albums in the market. Through online promotions, the new venture would gather information on new prospective buyers for new albums. Therefore, all the major companies can make their marketing strategies more efficient. By following the third alternative, BMG would reduce the risk that is associated with the next move. BMG would be heading in the same direction of the industry as well as focusing on its core competence. Because of the uncertainty of how the new business model would look like, there would be new business model for the whole industry. This alternative is the lowest risk in terms of financial cost.

Hamlet †its Universality :: The Tragedy of Hamlet Essays

Hamlet – its Universality  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare’s tragic play Hamlet is an excellent example, perhaps the best in English literature, of a work that has universal appeal. This essay will analyze the incredible universality of this drama, with the input of literary critics.    Robert B. Heilman in â€Å"The Role We Give Shakespeare† relates the universality of Shakespeare to the â€Å"innumerableness of the parts†:    But the Shakespeare completeness appears graspable and possessable to many men at odds with each other, because of the innumerableness of the parts: these parts we may consider incompletenesses, partial perspectives, and as such they correspond to the imperfect (but not necessarily invalid) modes of seeing and understanding practiced by imperfect (but not necessarily wrongheaded) interpreters and theorists of different camps. Each interpreter sees some part of the whole that does, we may say, mirror him, and he then proceeds to enlarge the mirror until it becomes the work as a whole (10).    Indeed, the reader finds a wide variety of â€Å"parts† from beginning to end of Hamlet. This is seen in the fact of over 20 characters with speaking roles; and in their variety of   occupations from king to grave-digger; and in the 20 different scene changes; and in the differentiation in speech, actions, etc. between every single individual character. Observe the countless parts in the opening scenes: The play begins with the changing of the sentinels on a guard platform of the wall of the castle of Elsinore. Recently the spectral likeness of dead King Hamlet has appeared to the sentinels. Tonight the ghost appears again to Barnardo, Marcellus and Horatio, a very close friend of Hamlet. Horatio and Marcellus exit the ramparts of Elsinore intending to enlist the aid of Hamlet, who is home from school, dejected by the â€Å"o’erhasty marriage† of his mother to his uncle. There is a gathering of the court, where Claudius pays tribute to the memory of his decease d brother, the former king, and then conducts some items of business. Hamlet is there dressed in black, the color of mourning, for his deceased father. His first words say that Claudius is "A little more than kin and less than kind," indicating a dissimilarity in values between the new king and himself. Heilmann’s â€Å"innumerableness of the parts† is abundantly testified to in just the first two scenes described in this paragraph. The 18 remaining scenes are similarly full of variety.

Cultural Difference in Malaysia

What are cultural differences between Malaysia and other countries? In general culture can define as a way of life and process of development of the personality, spirit, mind, and the human effort in a community or cluster. Culture can be understood as the creation of human community in various forms, whether tangible or intangible. Culture it’s very important because it show the difference between societies to another society. The cultural features are obtained through a learning process, practices of sharing and cannot be separated from language. We cannot be denied that the Malaysian culture is very different compare to other countries.Malaysia is a multiracial country living in harmony compare to other countries. Among the three main races in Malaysia are Malays, Chinese and Indian. In addition, Malaysia is a homeland to approximately for 80 ethnic groups, especially in East Malaysia including Baba and Nyonya, Kadazan and Iban. The total of Malaysia’s population is 28. 3 million of which 91. 8 % are national citizens while 8. 2 % are non-citizen. Furthermore, indigenous people were 67. 4 %, of which 56. 4% are Malays ethnic and 11% of the other natives. Approximately, the total of Chinese ethnic in Malaysia’s population is 24. %, 7. 3% are Indian with a total of 1. 86 million people, while other race is 0. 7 %. Almost 85 % of Indians in Malaysia are Tamil community. In terms of religion, Islam is the official religion of the Government of Malaysia as subject under the Constitution and the most widely professed religion with the proportion of 61. 3 %. As multi-racial country, other religions are practiced are Buddhism, Christian and Hinduism. In terms of language, Bahasa Malaysia is the official language of the country. However, other races are free to use their mother tongue like Chinese and Tamil.English an international language which play role as a second language in Malaysia and widely used in the fields of education, trade and indu stry. Malaysia national population practices are vary according to their own religion. According to the practice of Muslim believers is to pray five times a day, fasting during the month of Ramadan and eat kosher food. Muslim believers not allowed to drink alcohol, eat pork, do not eat the flesh of slaughtered animals, stealing and committing sins. Buddhist faith practice is to remove their shoes before entering the temple and prostrate statue of Buddha.They are not allowed to kill all living beings, stealing, lying and drinking alcohol. Hindu people required to wash their feet before entering the temple, fasting, tying a banana tree during religious ceremony and wearing black mark (pottu) in the middle of forehead for unmarried women, while for married women must wear red mark called as kum kum. Hindu believer do not allowed to drink alcohol, stealing , lying, give respect for parents and do not allowed to eat beef because according to their religion cows considered as gods. In add ition, each religious wedding ceremony is different.In Malay wedding ceremony, marriage contract and enthronement is very important practice that must be done because it’s a part of wedding. For Buddhist, both bride and groom usually get the blessing from the divine. They also practiced tea drinking custom in wedding ceremony that aims to strengthen family relationship. In Hindu wedding ceremony, the primary witness of marriage is the sacred fire (agni). Both bride and groom need to turn around the sacred fire in circular motion for seven times. Malaysia culture is based on Malay culture as the original people of this region.Malay culture based on Sharia law and Islamic principles. Malay cultural give more important to values and preferred politeness, simplicity and harmony among family members, neighbours and society. Example; in general handshakes suffice for both men and women, although some Muslim ladies may acknowledge an introduction to a gentleman with a nod of her hea d and smile. The traditional greeting of â€Å"salam† resembles a handshake with both hands but without the grasp. The man offers both hands, lightly touches the visitor's outstretched hands, and then brings his hands to his chest to mean, â€Å"I greet you from my heart†.The visitor should reciprocate the â€Å"salam†. Furthermore, in Malaysia culture, the right hand is always used when giving and receiving objects like gift or money. Pointing is normally done using the thumb as using the right forefinger is considered rude. Here is some general gift giving etiquette. In Malay culture, if invited someone home, don’t ever give pig and dog toy to children and don’t give any products that made from pig skin. White and yellow wrapping should be avoided because white symbolizes death and mourning while yellow symbolizes colour of royalty.In Chinese culture, if going to visit relative home, bring a small gift of cake or fruits for children. Giving flowe r should be avoided because flower do not make good gift and usually used at funerals. Besides that, the gift should wrap with cheerful colour like red, pink or yellow except white, blue, or black because symbolizes mourning colours in Chinese culture. In Indian culture, the gift should be given with the right hand and not wrap the gift with white and black colour. In generally, the gift should not open when received to avoid people think you are greedy.The way names are used also varies between ethnicities. The Chinese people traditionally have 3 names. The surname is usually first name and two personal names. Example: Wong Jae Suk. Malay people do not have surnames. Men use term â€Å"bin†, so Kamarul bin Mohamad is Kamarul the son of Mohamad. Instead women add their father’s name to their own name with the term â€Å"binti†. Indian people doesn’t use surname. Men use s/o to refer themselves as the son of their father. Example: Ajay s/o Abishek. Culture and communication depends on each other and have a reciprocal relationship.According to Hall, â€Å"culture is communication, communication is culture†. This indicates that communication is two-way. Different culture held different values. The way we communicate depens on our culture, rules and norms. For example, American usually treats and exchanged with unknown person. Meanwhile, The Malaysia does not prefer to treats or exchanged with stranger. This showed that Malaysia cultural and American cultural are totally different. Malaysia practices courteous communication. For Malay society, interact courteously very important and showed our values of norms.For example, using proper words when talk to someone older than us like Sir or Madam. Besides that, culture is also shown through verbal and non-verbal communication. Speak rude and negative words are prohibited. Malaysian traditional cultural games are batu seremban, wau, mah-jong and kabadi. Batu Seremban and Wau is Malay traditional games, Mahjong is Chinese traditional game, while Kabadi is Indian Traditional game. Batu Seremban also known as a Selambut. This game often played in leisure time by girls, either individually or in groups. It’s usually using glass marbels or small stones.Wau is known as kite and normally played by rural people. Wau created in various design and has its own name like wau in shape of brid, stingray, peacock and many more in various colour. However, Mahjong played by four individual and it involves strategy, tactics, skill and calculation. In Asia, mah-jong is also popular as gambling. In kabadi, each team consists of five players on the reserve bench and this game played for 20 minutes. A team will be sent forward to the opponent’s team, which aims to touch and push one of the players before turning back to his team.The players who have been touched by the opposing team will be out and left the field. From aspect of the traditional dance, the various custom s and culture can be learned from various ethnic groups in Malaysia. Dance can be defined as a movement of the body, legs and arms to the beat of the music. The traditional dance has own purpose and tribes. Examples of traditional dance in Malaysia are gamelan, zapin, kathak, dragon dance, kathak, bharathanatyam and many more. Zapin dance is famous dance in the state of Johor and usually performed in both formal and informal events like wedding or opening ceremony.Kathak dance is one of the Indian classical dances which are originated from Kerala. Kathak means â€Å"art of the storytelling†. While, bharathanatyam it’s also Indian classical dance based on Indian epics in motion of dramatic and passionate. Amorous dragon dance is a traditional cultural dance in China. Lion dance and dragon dance often played on Chinese New Year. As a conclusion, this discussion showed dramatically that Malaysia’s cultural very different compare to other countries. It’s more follow to the traditional, principle of the religion and give more important to norms, values and rules. I am very proud to be a Malaysian.

Reconstruction Dbq Apush Essay

The era from 1860 to 1877 was a time of reconstruction and revolution in America. Many constitutional developments aided the reform movement, such as the ratification of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which granted African Americans voting and civil rights. Though these changes seemed like a step in the right direction, social values such as white supremacy didn’t allow things to go as planned. Despite the fact that African Americans were granted rights on paper, they still weren’t treated equally. Actions of violence from the Ku Klux Klan threatened African Americans. Although slavery was considered abolished, people became partially enslaves due to the Mississippi Black Codes and sharecropping. During reconstruction there were many changes within the laws that granted African Americans rights that they hadn’t previously had. In 1865, many American citizens of African descent claimed that if they were able to be drafted, then they should have the right to vote as well (Doc. C). Soon after, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 provided citizenship to all former slaves and gave them equal rights, equal adherence to laws and rights to protect property. This was by far one of the most revolutionary transitions for slaves because it was a change in legislation (Doc. F). Furthermore, the addition of three new amendments also tremendously changed the lives of African Americans. The 13th amendment abolished slavery, the 14th amendment granted black people citizenship and equal protection of the laws, and the 15th amendment presented universal suffrage. The first black man was reported voting on November 16, 1867 (Doc. G). In addition, the Force Act of 1870 also helped to reinforce the idea that former slaves were to be treated with respect. Anyone who acted against them, specifically forbidding African Americans to vote by threatening them, would be seen as guilty of felony. The Second Force Act of 1871 was a reiteration of the first act, but it expanded further than just voting rights, and anyone who violated the constitutional rights would be found guilty of a high crime. This act was mainly used to stop the actions of the Ku Klux Klan. Although all of the reinforcements were made to help African Americans, there were still many  issues and disagreements upon the viewpoints of the American people. The point of reconstruction was aimed at helping to preserve the Union. Staying united as a nation was the only way to go about the situation (Doc. B). If all the states separated, more problems would arise as there would be more tension among them. This being so, the union didn’t want to do anything that might cause the south to secede from the nation. They wanted to keep a balance between different areas of the nation. They had satisfied the North by abolishing slavery, but this upset the south as they lost their main source of labor. To deal with this issue, the federal government stated that they had no motive to dictate the matter of suffrage in any state because they didn’t want to upset the south any more, worried that they might secede (Doc. D). A couple years later, the ratification of three new amendments would change that, but at the time being the government didn’t want to risk anything. Discrimination against African Americans was still very big issue in America. The installment of the Mississippi Black Codes created situations very similar to slavery. If someone was under eighteen years old, they would be put into apprentice ship where they would be under the title of a master. They could be persecuted or recaptured if they tried to run away. In addition, freed slaves who didn’t find a job within the year would be fined, and if they couldn’t afford to pay the fine they would be â€Å"lent† to those who could pay the fine. Another issue that came up was that the government didn’t carry out the promise that freed slaves that they would be able to purchase homesteads. Many former slaves argued that they are free men and deserve to have the same rights as anyone else (Doc. E). Since a lot of former slaves were vagrants and couldn’t afford a homestead, they would follow the system of sharecropping. Tenants would use the landowner’s land to plant crops, and they would pay the owner by giving them a share of the crops. This often became a cycle where the tenant would continuously be in debt, not allowing them to leave the land, almost making them slaves in a certain aspect. Following the Black Codes, the initiation of Jim Crow Laws created segregation between black people and white people. Each race had their own separate facilities and they were not allowed to share or combine  them. There was separation in simple things such as water fountains and restrooms, to more intricate things such as federal workplaces and the US military. As well as segregation between the blacks and whites, there were also acts of violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan towards the African Americans. Although, the government did take action against members of the KKK, their actions were still brutal (Doc. H). A political cartoon by Thomas Nast that appeared in Harper’s Weekly on October 24, 1874 shows how the abuse from the KKK was considered to be worse than slavery (Doc. I). Reconstruction was a time of revolution to a certain extent in terms of constitutional developments. The Civil Rights Act, the ratification of three new amendments, and the enforcement of the Force Acts all helped to give African Americans the equality that they deserved and protect them from potential harm. But in a social manner, African Americans weren’t treated as equals and were looked down upon. Instillations of the Black Codes and sharecropping put the recently freed slaves back in almost the same position as they were just recently. Jim Crow Laws created segregation between the two races, separating them with any given opportunity. Groups such as the KKK practiced acts of violence against the black people, seeing them as inferior. So although the ideas of reconstruction were revolutionary, the actions that followed them backfired the plan.